Python
Python is a clear and easy to learn programming language created by Guido van Rossum It is an interpreted language, which means that you can write a program or script and execute it directly rather than compiling it into machine code. Interpreted languages are a bit quicker to program with, since you don’t have to explicitly tell the computer whether a variable is a number, a list, or a string; the interpreter figures out the data types when you execute the script.
The Python interpreter can be run in two ways: as an interactive shell to execute individual commands, or as a command line program to execute standalone scripts. The integrated development environment (IDE) bundled with Python and the Raspberry Pi is called IDLE.
The reason you see two versions of IDLE is that there are two versions of Python installed on the Pi. This is common practice (though a bit confusing). Python 3 is the newest, but changes made to the language between versions 2 and 3 made the latter not backward compatible. Even though Python 3 has been around for years it took a while for it to be widely adopted, and lots of user contributed packages have not been upgraded to Python 3. Make sure that when you are looking at documentation you look at the version of Python that you are using.
Basics
- Python is not a typed language.
- Python is case sensitive.
- The end of a line marks the end of a statement.
- Single line comments begin with a #
- Multiline comments begin and end with '''
- Python source files use the .py extension.
Exercise 1
- Open LXTerminal.
- Make sure that you have installed emacs.
To check that you have a program installed, type the name of the program and press RETURN. If you don't have emacs installed, type:
sudo apt-get install emacs
- Navigate to the desktop by typing cd ~/Desktop
- If you want to see what is in the Desktop directory, type
ls
- Create a new directory (folder) by typing mkdir name_of_your_directory
- Go inside the directory by typing:
cd name_of_your_directory - Create new file by typing emacs hello.py. This will open the emacs editor and create a new file named hello.py.
- Type
print 'hello' - Press CTRL-x CTRL-s to save the current file
- Press CTRL-x CTRL-c to exit emacs
- Type python hello.py to run the program.
- Create a new python file in the same directory and write a program to print out something else. Run it. If you want to create a new file from within emacs press CTRL-x CTRL-f
- Type exit to close LXTerminal
Emacs help
Key Bindings
In the following, the prefix CTRL- refers to the CONTROL key, the prefix ESC- refers to the ESCAPE key. For example, CTRL-n means to simultaneously press the CONTROL key and the key "n".- Lines
CTRL-a go to the beginning-of-line CTRL-e go to the end-of-line CTRL-n go to next-line CTRL-p go to previous-line CTRL-k kill the current line CTRL-o open-line
- Words
ESC f forward-word ESC b backward-word ESC d kill-word ESC DEL backward-kill-word
- Characters
CTRL-f forward-char CTRL-b backward-char CTRL-d delete-char DEL delete-backward-char CTRL-q quoted-insert CTRL-t transpose-chars
- Regions
CTRL-space set a region mark CTRL-w kill-region (between cursor and mark) ESC-w memorize the contents of the region (without kill) CTRL-y yank (i.e., insert text last killed or memorize)
- Screen control
CTRL-l recenter CTRL-v scroll-up (forward) ESC-v scroll-down (backward) ESC < beginning-of-buffer ESC > end-of-buffer
- Search
CTRL-s isearch-forward CTRL-r isearch-backward
- Files
CTRL-x CTRL-f find-file CTRL-x CTRL-r find-file-read-only CTRL-x CTRL-s save-current-file
- Windows
CTRL-x 1 delete-other-windows CTRL-x 2 split-window-vertically CTRL-x 4 f find-file-other-window CTRL-x o other-window
- Command execution
ESC ! shell-command ESC x compile compile ("make -k" is default) CTRL-x ` next-error (used after "compile" to find/edit errors)- Miscellaneous
CTRL-x CTRL-c save-buffers-kill-emacs CTRL-u universal-argument CTRL-x CTRL-z suspend-emacs (resume by typing "fg" to unix)- Help!
CTRL-g keyboard-quit CTRL-h help-command CTRL-h t help-with-tutorial CTRL-h b describe-bindings (complete list of emacs commands)
Installing Raspberry Pi modules
Chances are you might want to program your Raspberry Pi, and if this is the case, you'll need some extra python modules., for example you will need the GPIO module if you want to use those pins.
To download the RPi.GPIO module
- ssh into you Raspberry Pi
- enter the following lines (give yourself time, it took an hour on my Pi to complete
sudo apt-get update sudo apt-get dist upgrade sudo apt-get install python3-rpi.gpio sudo python3 import RPi.GPIO as GPIO
-
Now you can type and use the module in Python3
dir(GPIO)
The IDE
IDLE is an IDE, in integrated Development Environment. When you first start IDLE, you are presented with the triple chevron prompt (>>>) at which point you can enter your code. The shell takes your code statement and immediately executes it for you, displaying any results produced on screen.
IDLE knows all about Python syntax and offers completion hints that pop up when you use a built-in function like print(). Python programmers generally refer to built-in functions as BIFs. The print() BIF displays messages to standard output (usually the screen).
IDLE uses colored syntax to highlight your code. By default, built-in functions are purple, strings are green, and language keywords (like if) are orange. Any results produced are in blue. IDLE also knows about Python's indentation syntax, which requires code blocks be indented. Space sensitivity can be hard to get used to, but IDLE keeps you straight by automatically indenting as needed.
TAB completion
Start to type your code, then press the TAB key, and IDLE will offer suggestions to help you complete your statement.Recall code statements
Press OPTION-P(previous) to recall the previous code statement entered into IDLE or press OPT-N (next) to move to the next code statement. Both key combinations can be used to cycle rapidly through all of the code you've entered into IDLE, re-executing any code statements as needed.Edit recalled code
Once you recall your code statement, you can edit it and move around the statement using the arrow keys. It's possible to edit any statement that you've previously entered, even code statements that span multiple lines.IDLE's preferences
IDLE's preferences dialog lets you adjust its default behavior. You can control :- font and tab behavior
- the colors used to syntax highlight
- the behavior of certain keycombinations
- IDLE's start-up settings.
- Open up the IDLE 3 application by double-clicking the IDLE 3 icon on the desktop, or click the desktop menu in the lower left, and choose Programming>IDLE 3. Opening IDLE takes a while, so be patient.
- When you see a window with the interactive shell, you'll see the triple chevron (>>>), which is the interactive prompt. The prompt indicates that the interpreter is waiting for your commands. At the prompt type:
>>> print("hello") - Press Enter or Return. Python executes that statement and you’ll see the result in the shell window. Note that the print() command is one of the things that changed in Python 3.0; if you get a syntax error, check to make sure you're running the 3.0 version of IDLE.
-
You can use the shell as a calculator to test out statements or calculations:
Think of the statements executed in the interactive shell as a program that you’re running one line at a time. You can set up variables or import modules:
>> 3+4+5
The import command makes all of Python’s math functions available to your program (more about modules in Objects and Modules). To set up a variable, use the assignment operator (=):>>> import math >>> (1 + math.sqrt(5)) / 2
>>> import math >>> radius = 200 >>> radius * 2 * math.pi
-
If you want to clear all variables and start in a fresh state, select Shell>Restart Shell to start over.
- You can also use the interactive shell to get information about how to use a particular statement, module, or other Python topics with the help() command:
To get a listing of all of the topics available, try:
help("print")help("topics") help("keywords") help("modules") -
The Python interpreter is good for testing statements or simple operations, but you will often want to run your Python script as a standalone application. To start a new Python program, select File>New Window, and IDLE will give you a script editing window:
-
Try typing a line of code and selecting Run>Run Module. You’ll get a warning that "Source Must Be Saved OK To Save?". Save your script in your home directory as first.py and you’ll see it execute in the shell.
- You probably noticed that the output of IDLE is very slow when running example code that prints to the shell. This is because you are working with limited resources on the Pi.
Creating files in IDLE
- Open IDLE
- In the shell window select File>New Window
- In the Untitled window click File>Save
- In the Save As dialog box, note that the default save location is your home directory. name your new file doctor and click Save
- Type the following:
#!/usr/bin/env python #computer doctor apple=input("First of all, what is your name?") print("Hi "+apple+". What kind of problems are you having?") fish=input("Can you describe some of them?") print("You said: "+fish+"! That's really interesting!") cheesecake=input("Any other symptoms?") - Save the program in the File Menu.
- Click on the run menu and select Run Module
- If all works out add to the program. otherwise fix your errors.
More Python
So now you can either write your programs using emacs or IDLE. You can decide what works for you.
- Create a file named
guess.py using emacs.
- Type the following into your document
- Save your script as guess.py in the directory you previously created.
- Run the program is terminal by typing python guess.py and pressing RETURN
# A comment, this is so you can read your program later. # Anything after the # is ignored by python. '''if I wanted the comment to span multi-lines, I would do it like this with the triple single quote at the beginning and end of my comment'''
Exercise
Go back to the program you just copied and ran and add comments explaining what each line of code is doingMore Math
Open terminal and write a python statement that will return the answer to this:
(Hint: The math module is always available to you when writing Python scripts.)
The following functions are provided by this module. Except when explicitly noted otherwise, all return values are floats.
Number-theoretic and representation functions
- ceil(x)
Return the ceiling of x as a float, the smallest integer value greater than or equal to x.
- copysign(x, y)
Return x with the sign of y. On a platform that supports signed zeros, copysign(1.0, -0.0) returns -1.0.
- fabs(x)
Return the absolute value of x.
- factorial(x)
Return x factorial. Raises ValueErrorif x is not integral or is negative.
- floor(x)
Return the floor of x as a float, the largest integer value less than or equal to x.
- fmod(x, y)
Return fmod(x, y), as defined by the platform C library. Note that the Python expression x % y may not return the same result. The intent of the C standard is that fmod(x, y) be exactly (mathematically; to infinite precision) equal to x - n*y for some integer n such that the result has the same sign as x and magnitude less than abs(y). Python’s x % y returns a result with the sign of y instead, and may not be exactly computable for float arguments. For example, fmod(-1e-100, 1e100) is -1e-100, but the result of Python’s -1e-100 % 1e100 is 1e100-1e-100, which cannot be represented exactly as a float, and rounds to the surprising 1e100. For this reason, function fmod() is generally preferred when working with floats, while Python’s x % y is preferred when working with integers.
- frexp(x)
Return the mantissa and exponent of x as the pair (m, e). m is a float and e is an integer such that x == m * 2**e exactly. If x is zero, returns (0.0, 0), otherwise 0.5 <= abs(m) < 1. This is used to “pick apart” the internal representation of a float in a portable way.
- fsum(iterable)
Return an accurate floating point sum of values in the iterable. Avoids loss of precision by tracking multiple intermediate partial sums:
>>> sum([.1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1]) 0.9999999999999999 >>> fsum([.1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1, .1]) 1.0
The algorithm’s accuracy depends on IEEE-754 arithmetic guarantees and the typical case where the rounding mode is half-even. On some non-Windows builds, the underlying C library uses extended precision addition and may occasionally double-round an intermediate sum causing it to be off in its least significant bit.
- isinf(x)
Check if the float x is positive or negative infinity.
- isnan(x)
Check if the float x is a NaN (not a number).
- ldexp(x, i)
Return x * (2**i). This is essentially the inverse of function frexp().
- modf(x)
Return the fractional and integer parts of x. Both results carry the sign of x and are floats.
- trunc(x)
Return the Real value x truncated to an Integral (usually a long integer). Uses the __trunc__ method.
Note that frexp() and modf() have a different call/return pattern than their C equivalents: they take a single argument and return a pair of values, rather than returning their second return value through an ‘output parameter’ (there is no such thing in Python).
For the ceil(), floor(), and modf()functions, note that all floating-point numbers of sufficiently large magnitude are exact integers. Python floats typically carry no more than 53 bits of precision (the same as the platform C double type), in which case any float x with abs(x) >= 2**52 necessarily has no fractional bits.
Power and logarithmic functions
- exp(x)
Return e**x.
- expm1(x)
Return e**x - 1. For small floats x, the subtraction in exp(x) - 1 can result in a significant loss of precision; the expm1() function provides a way to compute this quantity to full precision:
>>> from math import exp, expm1 >>> exp(1e-5) - 1 # gives result accurate to 11 places 1.0000050000069649e-05 >>> expm1(1e-5) # result accurate to full precision 1.0000050000166668e-05
- log(x[, base])
With one argument, return the natural logarithm of x (to base e).
With two arguments, return the logarithm of x to the given base, calculated as log(x)/log(base).
- log1p(x)
Return the natural logarithm of 1+x (base e). The result is calculated in a way which is accurate for x near zero.
- log10(x)
Return the base-10 logarithm of x. This is usually more accurate than log(x, 10).
- pow(x, y)
-
Return x raised to the power y. Exceptional cases follow Annex ‘F’ of the C99 standard as far as possible. In particular, pow(1.0, x) and pow(x, 0.0) always return 1.0, even when x is a zero or a NaN. If both x and y are finite, x is negative, and y is not an integer then pow(x, y) is undefined, and raises ValueError.
- sqrt(x)
Return the square root of x.
Trigonometric functions
- acos(x)
Return the arc cosine of x, in radians.
- asin(x)
Return the arc sine of x, in radians.
- atan(x)
Return the arc tangent of x, in radians.
- atan2(y, x)
-
Return atan(y / x), in radians. The result is between -pi and pi. The vector in the plane from the origin to point (x, y) makes this angle with the positive X axis. The point of atan2() is that the signs of both inputs are known to it, so it can compute the correct quadrant for the angle. For example, atan(1) and atan2(1, 1) are both pi/4, but atan2(-1, -1) is -3*pi/4.
- cos(x)
Return the cosine of x radians.
- hypot(x, y)
Return the Euclidean norm, sqrt(x*x + y*y). This is the length of the vector from the origin to point (x, y).
- sin(x)
Return the sine of x radians.
- tan(x)
Return the tangent of x radians.
Angular conversion
- degrees(x)
Converts angle x from radians to degrees.
- radians(x)
Converts angle x from degrees to radians.
Hyperbolic functions
- acosh(x)
Return the inverse hyperbolic cosine of x.
- asinh(x)
Return the inverse hyperbolic sine of x.
- atanh(x)
Return the inverse hyperbolic tangent of x.
- cosh(x)
Return the hyperbolic cosine of x.
- sinh(x)
Return the hyperbolic sine of x.
- tanh(x)
Return the hyperbolic tangent of x.
Special functions
- erf(x)
Return the error function at x.
- erfc(x)
Return the complementary error function at x.
- gamma(x)
Return the Gamma function at x.
- lgamma(x)
Return the natural logarithm of the absolute value of the Gamma function at x.
Constants
- pi
The mathematical constant π = 3.141592..., to available precision.
- e
The mathematical constant e = 2.718281..., to available precision.
Strings
- Strings are characters "strung" together.
- Strings can be enclosed by either double or single quotes, but single quotes are more commonly used in python.
- Strings can span multiple lines, but you must use a backslash \ at the end of each line to escape the newline
- Python strings are immutable which means they cannot be changed after they are created
- Python uses zero-based indexing, so if str = 'hello', str[1]= 'e'.
- The len(string) function returns the length of a string.
- The + operator can concatenate two strings.
- The str() function converts values to a string form so they can be combined with other strings.
- s.lower(), s.upper() returns the lowercase or uppercase version of the string
-
s.strip() returns a string with whitespace removed from the start and end
-
s.isalpha()s.isdigit() s.isspace() tests if all the string chars are in the various character classes
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s.startswith('other') s.endswith('other') tests if the string starts or ends with the given other string
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s.find('other') searches for the given other string (not a regular expression) within s, and returns the first index where it begins or -1 if not found
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s.replace('old', 'new') returns a string where all occurrences of 'old' have been replaced by 'new'
-
s.split('delim') returns a list of substrings separated by the given delimiter. The delimiter is not a regular expression, it's just text.
'aaa,bbb,ccc'.split(',') -> ['aaa', 'bbb', 'ccc'] - s.split() (with no arguments) splits on all whitespace chars.
-
s.join(list) is the opposite of split() and joins the elements in the given list together using the string as the delimiter.
'---'.join(['aaa', 'bbb', 'ccc']) -> aaa---bbb---ccc
- The "slice" syntax is a handy way to refer to sub-parts of sequences, typically strings and lists. The slice s[start:end]
s = 'Hello' s[1:4] #returns 'ell' -- chars starting at index 1 and extending up to but not including index 4 s[1:] #returns 'ello' -- omitting either index defaults to the start or end of the string s[:] #returns 'Hello' -- omitting both always gives us a copy of the whole thing (this is the pythonic way to copy a sequence like a string or list) s[1:100] #returns 'ello' -- an index that is too big is truncated down to the string length '''The standard zero-based index numbers give easy access to chars near the start of the string. As an alternative, Python uses negative numbers to give easy access to the chars at the end of the string. Negative index numbers count back from the end of the string''' s[-1] #returns 'o' -- last char (1st from the end) s[-4] #returns 'e' -- 4th from the end s[:-3] #returns 'He' -- going up to but not including the last 3 chars. s[-3:] #returns 'llo' -- starting with the 3rd char from the end and extending to the end of the string.
Exercise
In this exercise you will make strings that have variables embedded in them. To embed variables inside a string use specialized format sequences and then put the variables at the end with a special syntax that tells Python, "Hey, this is a formated string, put these variables in there."- Create a new python file and just type this in even if you don't understand it :
my_name = 'your_name' my_age = your_age my_height = your_height_in_inches my_weight = your_weight_in_pounds my_eyes = 'your_eye_color' my_hair = 'your_hair_color' print "Let's talk about %s." % my_name print "%s is %d inches tall." %(my_name , my_height) print "%s is %d pounds heavy." %(my_name , my_weight) print "%s has %s eyes and %s hair." % (my_name, my_eyes, my_hair) # this line is tricky, try to get it exactly right print "If I add %d, %d, and %d I get %d." % ( my_age, my_height, my_weight, my_age + my_height + my_weight)
- Run the program
- Change all the variables so there isn't the my_ in front.
- Search online for all of the Python format characters
- Make a web page explaining those characters.
- Use emacs to create an html shell:
<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head> <title>Untitled</title> </head> <body> </body> </html>
- Explain format characters in the body of your web page.
- Save the file in a your created directory.
- Use emacs to create an html shell:
- Convert the inches and pounds to centimeters and kilos. Work out the math in Python.
- An important escape sequence is to escape a single-quote ' or double-quote ". If you have a string that is created with double-quotes and want to print out the string that includes double-quotes, you have to use an escape sequence. If you do this print "I "understand" Liz." Python will get confused and end the string before understand" Liz.".
Search online to see what other escape sequences are available. Make another web page that explains what each sequence does.
"I am 6'2\" tall." # escape double-quote inside string 'I am 6\'2" tall.' # escape single-quote inside string tabby_cat = "\tI'm tabbed in." persian_cat = "I'm split\non a line." backslash_cat = "I'm \\ a \\ cat." fat_cat = """ I'll do a list: \t* Cat food \t* Fishies \t* Catnip\n\t* Grass """ print tabby_cat print persian_cat print backslash_cat print fat_cat
- Every letter is associated with a number.
Function ord() will get the int value of a char. If you want to convert it back after playing with the number, use function chr()To iterate over a list:>>> ord('a') 97 >>> chr(97) 'a' >>> chr(ord('a')) 'a'Testing for equalityfor each_thing in my_list: #list processing code print (each_thing)Testing for inequalityif(this=='.'): #do something
For complex conditionalsif(this!='.'): #do something
To append a stringif(a or b): #do something if(a and b): #do something else
A handy function, but don't use it like this:newString='' newString+='hello ' newString+='there' print newString
def onlyascii(char): if ord(char) < 48 or ord(char) > 127: return '' else: return char
Solve this puzzle using this clue:
g fmnc wms bgblr rpylqjyrc gr zw fylb. rfyrq ufyr amknsrcpq ypc dmp. bmgle gr gl zw fylb gq glcddgagclr ylb rfyr'q ufw rfgq rcvr gq qm jmle.
Another challenge
- Find the rarest character in the following:
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Hint: str.count('a') will return the number of times a occurs in str
Lists
Lists are like arrays.They can contain any type of variable, and they can contain as many variables as you wish.
mylist = []
mylist.append(1)
mylist.append(2)
mylist.append(3)
print mylist[0] # prints 1
print mylist[1] # prints 2
print mylist[2] # prints 3
# prints out 1,2,3
for x in mylist:
print xLoops
You can iterate over a list using a for loop. Lists are the most common iterated data structure in Python, and when you need to iterate a list:
#in separates the target identifier from your list
for each_thing in my_list:
#list processing code
print (each_thing)
BIFs
At the Python or IDLE shell, type dir(__builtins__) to see a list of built-ins that comes with Python (that's two leading and trailing underscore characters). The shell spits out a big list. Try it. All those lowercase words are BIFs. To find out what any BIF does (like input()) type help(input) at the shell for a description of the BIFs function.
When you want to do something that seems generic, chances are there is already a BIF that does it.
Assignment 1
Match the BIF to the definition| Here is a list of BIFs |
|---|
| next() |
| id() |
| int() |
| enumerate() |
| range() |
| list() |
| Here is a list of definitions |
|---|
| Converts a string or another type of number to an integer if possible |
| Returns an iterator that generates numbers in a specified range |
| Function that creates a new empty list |
| Creates a numbered list of paired-data, starting from 0 |
| Returns the unique identification for a Python data object |
| Returns the next item from an iterable data structure |
Assignment 2
Pick 5 BIF and find out what they do. Make a web page to remind you and explain to your classmates what those BIFs do.Functions
This short program will print out even numbers:
- Create this program on your Pi:
# Setup n = 0 # Loop while True: n = n + 1 # The % is the modulo operator if ((n % 2) == 0): print(n) - If using IDLE
select Run Module. As it runs, you should see all even integers printed
- Press Control-C to interrupt the output, because it will go on forever).
-
In the example above, you may not notice that each level of indentation is four spaces, not a tab (but you can press tab in IDLE or emacs and it will dutifully insert spaces for you). Indentation has structural meaning in Python. Be careful when copying and pasting code. See the Python Style Guidelines for tips on writing readable code.
It is important to watch your whitespace; Python is a highly structured language where the whitespace determines the structure. In the next example, everything indented one level below the loop() function is considered part of that function. The end of a loop is determined by where the indentation moves up a level (or end of the file). This differs from languages like C that delimit blocks of code with brackets or other markers.
A function in Python is a named suite or block of code, which can also take an optional list of arguments if required. A suite is a block of Python code which is indented to indicate grouping. You define a Python function using the def statement, providing a name for your function and specifying either an empty or populated argument list within parentheses. The standard form looks something like this:
def function_name(argument(s)):
function code suiteUse functions to put chunks of code into a code block that can be called from other places in your script. To rewrite the previous example with functions, do the following:
# Declare global variables
n = 0
# Setup function
def setup():
global n
n = 100
def loop():
global n
n = n + 1
if ((n % 2) == 0):
print(n)
# Main
setup()
while True:
loop()
First the variable n is defined as a global variable that can be used in any block in the script.
Here, the setup() function is defined (but not yet executed).
Similarly, here’s the definition of the loop() function.
In the main code block, setup() is called once, then loop(). The use of the global keyword in the first line of each function is important; it tells the interpreter to use the global variable n rather than create a second (local, or private to that function) n variable usable only in the function.
Objects and Modules
You'll need to understand the basic syntax of dealing with objects and modules to get through the examples in this book. Python is a clean language, with just 34 reserved keywords (see Table 3-1). These keywords are the core part of the language that let you structure and control the flow of activity in your script. Pretty much everything that isn’t a keyword can be considered an object. An object is a combination of data and behaviors that has a name. You can change an object’s data, retrieve information from it, and even manipulate other objects.A Python object can be thought of as an encapsulated collection of attributes and methods. You get access to these attributes and methods using a simple dot syntax. For example, type this at the interactive shell prompt to set up a string object and call the method that tells it to capitalize itself:
>>> myString = "quux" >>> myString.capitalize() 'Quux' Or use reverse() to rearrange a list in reverse order: >>> myList = ['a', 'man', 'a', 'plan', 'a', 'canal'] >>> myList.reverse() >>> print(myList) ['canal', 'a', 'plan', 'a', 'man', 'a']
import time
import time as myTime
from time import clock
from datetime import datetime from time import sleep
while True:
now = str(datetime.now())
print(now)
sleep(1)Next, let’s modify the example to open a text file and periodically log some data to it. Everything is a string when handling text files. Use the str() function to convert numbers to strings (and int() to change back to an integer).
from datetime import datetime
from time import sleep
import random
log = open("log.txt", "w")
while i in range(5):
now = str(datetime.now())
# Generate some random data in the range 0-1024
data = random.randint(0, 1024)
log.write(now + " " + str(data) + "\n")
print(".")
sleep(.9)
log.flush()
log.close()Here's another example (ReadFile.py) that reads in a filename as an argument from the command line (run it from the shell with python3 ReadFile.py filename. The program opens the file, reads each line as a string and prints it. Note that print() acts like println() does in other languages; it adds a newline to the string that is printed. The end argument to print() suppresses the newline.
# Open and read a file from command line argument
import sys
if (len(sys.argv) != 2):
print("Usage: python ReadFile.py filename")
sys.exit()
scriptname = sys.argv[0]
filename = sys.argv[1]
file = open(filename, "r")
lines = file.readlines()
file.close()
for line in lines:
print(line)Some packages of particular interest to Pi users
Module Description URL Package Name RPi.GPIO Access to GPIO pins http://code.google.com/p/raspberry-gpio-python/ python-rpi.gpio Pygame Gaming framework http://pygame.org python-pygame SimpleCV Easy API for Computer Vision http://simplecv.org/ No package Scipy Scientific computing http://www.scipy.org/ python-scipy Numpy The numerical underpinings of Scipy http://numpy.scipy.org/ python-numpy Flask Microframework for web development http://flask.pocoo.org/ python-flask Requests "HTTP for Humans" http://ocs.python-requests.org python-requests PIL Image processing http://www.pythonware.com/products/pil/ python-imaging wxPython GUI framework http://wxpython.org python-wxgtk2.8 PySerial Access to serial port http://pyserial.sourceforge.net/ python-serial pyUSB FTDI-USB interface http://bleyer.org/pyusb
sudo apt-get install python-serial
python setup.py install
Reserved Words
if for print class try else in pass def except elif while del global finally not break lambda raise or as nonlocal assert and continue yield with is import True return False from None
Debugging
Debugging is just a part of programming. The IDLE interactive mode can be your friend; the Debug menu provides several tools that will help you understand how your code is actually executing. You also have the option of seeing all your variables and stepping through the execution line by line.
Syntax errors are simple to deal with; usually this is just a typo. Semantic errors — where the program is well formed but doesn’t do what you expect it to do — can be harder to figure out. That’s where the debugger comes in. Here is a quick checklist of things to check when programming the Pi in Python:
- Use print() to show when the program gets to a particular point.
- Use _print()+ to show the values of variables as the program executes.
- Double check whitespace to make sure blocks are defined the way you think they are.
- When debugging syntax errors, remember that the actual error may have been introduced well before the interpreter reports it.
- Double check all of your global and local variables
- Check for matching parentheses
- Make sure the order of operations is correct in calculations; insert parentheses if you’re not sure. For example, 3 + 4 * 2 and (3 + 4) * 2 yield different results.
- Look at logging modules for more debugging tools.
